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AckeeBlighia sapida K.D.Koenig
AllspicePimenta dioica, the dried unripe berry of an evergreen tree native to the Greater Antilles, southern Mexico, and Central America. Not to be confused with Pimenta racemosa, the West Indian bay tree, whose leaf flavours bay rum and some Caribbean cooking.
AlmondPrunus dulcis (synonym Prunus amygdalus); the bitter form is Prunus dulcis var. amara and the sweet form var. dulcis
AnisePimpinella anisum, a single cultivated species with no culinary varieties worth separating; it is unrelated to star anise (Illicium verum), to liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), and only distantly related to fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), all of which taste of it
AppleMalus domestica
ApricotPrunus armeniaca
AsafoetidaFerula assa-foetida L. and Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel, the asafoetidas of commerce; with silphion, the lost laser of Cyrene, which was probably also a Ferula
AsparagusAsparagus officinalis
AubergineSolanum melongena
AvocadoPersea americana
BananaMusa spp.
BarleyHordeum vulgare
BasilOcimum basilicum / Ocimum tenuiflorum / Ocimum × africanum
Bay LeafLaurus nobilis (bay laurel, the true or sweet bay of the Mediterranean); together with the unrelated 'bay leaves' of other cuisines: Cinnamomum tamala (Indian bay, tejpat), Syzygium polyanthum (Indonesian bay, daun salam), and Litsea glaucescens (Mexican bay)
BeansPhaseolus vulgaris
BeetrootBeta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris
Bell PepperCapsicum annuum var. annuum, Grossum Group (the blocky sweet or bell pepper) and the elongated sweet groups (Italian corno, Hungarian TV paprika, Spanish piquillo, Balkan kapia); together with the non-pungent forms of Capsicum chinense (ají dulce, cachucha, ajicito) of the Caribbean and northern South America
Black GramVigna mungo (L.) Hepper, black gram or urad, domesticated in India from the wild V. mungo var. silvestris; not to be confused with its close relative V. radiata, the mung bean or green gram. Linnaeus described it as Phaseolus mungo, and the specific epithet echoes the Indian name of the mung bean, a small reminder of how long the two pulses have been confused
Black PepperPiper nigrum
BlackberryRubus fruticosus agg. (the European bramble, a complex of hundreds of microspecies) · R. allegheniensis and R. argutus (North American upright blackberries) · R. ursinus (the Pacific dewberry, parent of the loganberry, boysenberry, and marionberry) · R. armeniacus (the Armenian or 'Himalayan' blackberry of commerce)
BlueberryVaccinium angustifolium (lowbush wild blueberry, Maritime Canada) · Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry, New Jersey, domesticated 1916 CE) · Vaccinium myrtillus (European bilberry, Scandinavia and Northern Europe)
BreadfruitArtocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg, breadfruit; with its seeded progenitor Artocarpus camansi Blanco, the breadnut, and the Micronesian hybrids of A. altilis with A. mariannensis Trécul
BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italica
Brussels SproutBrassica oleracea var. gemmifera
BuckwheatFagopyrum esculentum (common buckwheat); together with Fagopyrum tataricum (Tartary or bitter buckwheat), the cold- and altitude-hardy species of the high Himalaya and the southwest Chinese mountains
CabbageBrassica oleracea
CaperCapparis spinosa, the Mediterranean caper of the bud and the caperberry; and, separately, Capparis decidua, the ker of the Thar Desert, whose small red fruit is a staple of Rajasthani cooking and is not interchangeable with it
CardamomElettaria cardamomum (green or true cardamom); Amomum subulatum (black or large cardamom, smoke-dried in the eastern Himalaya); Amomum tsao-ko (Chinese black cardamom, cao guo); Amomum compactum (round or Java cardamom)
CarrotDaucus carota
CashewAnacardium occidentale
CassavaManihot esculenta Crantz, a woody shrub grown for its swollen storage roots and, across much of Africa, for its leaves as well. Its wild ancestor is Manihot esculenta subsp. flabellifolia, still growing along the southern rim of the Amazon basin. Three plants are routinely confused with it and none is a relation: Yucca, the ornamental of the asparagus family, which shares only a spelling; Maranta arundinacea, arrowroot; and Metroxylon sagu, the sago palm, whose starch is sold under names that are usually on cassava packets.
CeleryApium graveolens
CherryPrunus avium (sweet cherry); Prunus cerasus (sour or tart cherry); together with the East Asian flowering cherries (Prunus serrulata and its kin, the sakura), whose blossoms and leaves are used in Japanese cookery
ChickpeaCicer arietinum
Chilli PepperCapsicum spp.
CinnamonCinnamomum spp.
ClovesSyzygium aromaticum
CocoaTheobroma cacao
CoconutCocos nucifera
CoffeeCoffea arabica / Coffea canephora
CorianderCoriandrum sativum
CornZea mays
CourgetteCucurbita pepo var. cylindrica
CowpeaVigna unguiculata (L.) Walp., the cowpea, domesticated in sub-Saharan Africa from the wild V. unguiculata var. spontanea; the black-eyed pea is one of its seed types, and the yardlong bean of Asia is its Sesquipedalis Group, a vegetable form selected for its long green pods
CucumberCucumis sativus
CulantroEryngium foetidum L., a biennial or short-lived perennial rosette herb native to tropical America and the West Indies; not a relative of coriander, Coriandrum sativum, beyond the shared family
CuminCuminum cyminum
CurrantRibes nigrum (the blackcurrant) · R. rubrum (the redcurrant, and the pale-fruited cultivars sold as whitecurrants) · R. spicatum and R. petraeum (the northern and montane parents of the garden redcurrant) · and, quite separately, Vitis vinifera 'Black Corinth' (the Zante or dried currant, a seedless grape)
Curry LeafMurraya koenigii, a small understorey tree of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. Unrelated to the bay laurel, to Indian bay (Cinnamomum tamala), and to the Mediterranean curry plant (Helichrysum italicum), none of which is a substitute.
DatePhoenix dactylifera, the fruit of a dioecious desert palm. Three relatives matter, and none of them is a substitute: Phoenix theophrasti, the Cretan palm whose genes sit inside every North African date; Phoenix sylvestris, the Indian wild date, tapped for its sap rather than picked for its fruit; and Phoenix canariensis, the ornamental of a thousand seafront promenades, whose fruit is not worth eating.
DillAnethum graveolens, the dill of Europe and West Asia; and its South Asian cultivated race Anethum sowa, Indian dill, ranked by the more cautious authorities as A. graveolens subsp. sowa, which is coarser, markedly higher in dillapiole, and is a different herb on the plate
FennelFoeniculum vulgare Mill., a perennial of the Mediterranean basin grown in three quite different ways from one species. Var. vulgare is common or bitter fennel, raised for its seed and its feathery foliage; var. dulce is sweet fennel, milder in the seed and the source of most fennel used as a herb; and var. azoricum is Florence fennel or finocchio, selected in Italy for the swollen overlapping leaf bases that form the bulb eaten as a vegetable.
FenugreekTrigonella foenum-graecum (common fenugreek: the seed, the fresh leaf or methi, and the dried leaf or kasuri methi) · Trigonella caerulea (blue fenugreek, the utskho suneli of Georgia and the flavouring of Swiss Schabziger)
FigFicus carica (common fig); Ficus sycomorus (sycamore fig, Africa)
GarlicAllium sativum
GingerZingiber officinale
GrapefruitCitrus × paradisi, a hybrid of the pomelo Citrus maxima and the sweet orange Citrus × sinensis; the parent pomelo has an entry of its own
GrapesVitis vinifera
GuavaPsidium guajava (common or apple guava); with the related strawberry guava (Psidium cattleyanum) and the pineapple guava or feijoa (Acca sellowiana), distinct fruits of the same myrtle family
HazelnutCorylus avellana (common hazel, the European hazelnut and cobnut) · Corylus maxima (the filbert) · Corylus colurna (Turkish tree hazel) · Corylus americana and C. cornuta (American and beaked hazelnuts) · Corylus heterophylla (Asian or Siberian hazel)
JackfruitArtocarpus heterophyllus Lam., the jackfruit; with its Malesian relative Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr., the cempedak
KaleBrassica oleracea in its leafy, non-heading forms (var. acephala and var. sabellica, curly kale; var. palmifolia, the Tuscan cavolo nero; var. viridis, collard greens; var. alboglabra, Chinese kale or kai-lan); together with the separate species Brassica napus (Russian and Siberian kale) and Brassica carinata (Ethiopian kale)
LeekAllium ampeloprasum, a species genuinely distinct from the onion, in the cultivated form usually written as A. ampeloprasum var. porrum or the Porrum Group. The same species also produces the Egyptian kurrat (var. kurrat), elephant garlic (var. ampeloprasum), and the true pearl onion (var. sectivum).
LemonCitrus limon
LemongrassCymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf, West Indian lemongrass, the culinary species, known only in cultivation and probably of Malesian origin; its relative C. flexuosus, East Indian lemongrass, is grown for its oil
LentilsLens culinaris
LettuceLactuca sativa (cultivated lettuce), domesticated from Lactuca serriola (wild or prickly lettuce); cultivated chiefly as romaine or cos (var. longifolia), butterhead and crisphead (var. capitata), looseleaf (var. crispa), and the Chinese stem lettuce or celtuce (var. angustana)
LimeCitrus × aurantiifolia (the key, West Indian, or Mexican lime) · C. × latifolia (the Persian, Tahiti, or Bearss lime, the seedless lime of world commerce) · C. hystrix (the makrut lime, grown for its leaf and rind) · C. australasica (the Australian finger lime) · C. × microcarpa (the calamansi or Philippine lime) · C. limetta (the sweet lime or mosambi)
MangoMangifera indica
MarjoramOriganum majorana L., sweet marjoram; and Origanum syriacum L., the za'atar of the Levant, both of section Majorana
MilletA group name for several small-seeded cereal grasses: Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet); Setaria italica (foxtail millet); Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn or proso millet); Eleusine coracana (finger millet, ragi); together with the West African fonio (Digitaria exilis) and a range of minor millets
MintMentha spp.
Mung BeanVigna radiata (the mung bean, green gram, or moong), domesticated from the wild V. radiata var. sublobata; not to be confused with its close Indian relative V. mungo (black gram or urad), nor with V. angularis (adzuki)
Musk MelonCucumis melo
MustardThree species in substantial use, and they are not interchangeable: Sinapis alba, white or yellow mustard, mild; Brassica juncea, brown or Indian mustard, hot, and the commercial workhorse; and Brassica nigra, black mustard, the fiercest of the three and now largely confined to South Indian cooking because it shatters before a machine can harvest it
Nutmeg & MaceMyristica fragrans
OatAvena sativa (common oat) · Avena byzantina (red or Mediterranean oat) · Avena nuda (naked or hulless oat, the youmai of northern China) · derived from the wild Avena sterilis and Avena fatua
Oil PalmElaeis guineensis Jacq., the African oil palm, a single-stemmed palm reaching thirty metres and bearing dense heads of plum-sized fruit. A second species, Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) Cortés, the American oil palm, grows wild from Honduras to the Amazon and is the reason plantations in Latin America can resist bud rot: it is crossed with E. guineensis to make the OxG hybrid. It supplies almost no cooking oil of its own. Every cuisine described in this entry uses E. guineensis.
OkraAbelmoschus esculentus
OliveOlea europaea
OnionAllium cepa
OrangeCitrus × sinensis
OreganoOriganum vulgare · Lippia graveolens
PapayaCarica papaya L., the sole species now kept in the genus Carica; the mountain papayas of the Andes, once filed alongside it, are now placed in Vasconcellea
ParsleyPetroselinum crispum
Passion FruitPassiflora edulis f. edulis (purple passion fruit) · P. edulis f. flavicarpa (yellow passion fruit, maracujá amarelo) · P. ligularis (granadilla) · P. tarminiana and P. mollissima (curuba, tumbo, banana passionfruit) · P. quadrangularis (giant granadilla, badea) · P. incarnata (maypop)
PeaPisum sativum
PeachPrunus persica
PeanutArachis hypogaea
PearPyrus communis (European) / Pyrus pyrifolia (Asian)
PecanCarya illinoinensis
Pigeon PeaCajanus cajan (L.) Millsp., the pigeon pea, domesticated in eastern peninsular India from the wild C. cajanifolius
PineappleAnanas comosus
PistachioPistacia vera (culinary pistachio); Pistacia terebinthus (terebinth, gathered wild in the Levant and Mediterranean); Pistacia lentiscus (mastic tree, Chios)
PlumPrunus domestica (European plum); Prunus salicina (Japanese plum); Prunus mume (ume, Chinese plum); Prunus cerasifera (cherry plum)
PomegranatePunica granatum; the dwarf ornamental is var. nana, and the wild Socotran relative is the separate species Punica protopunica
PomeloCitrus maxima (Burm.) Merr., also published as C. grandis; one of the small group of ancestral citrus species from which nearly all cultivated citrus derives
PotatoSolanum tuberosum
Pumpkin & SquashCucurbita spp.
QuinoaChenopodium quinoa
RadishRaphanus sativus
RaspberryRubus idaeus (European red raspberry) · R. idaeus subsp. strigosus (American red raspberry) · R. occidentalis (North American black raspberry) · R. coreanus (Korean black raspberry, bokbunja)
RhubarbRheum rhabarbarum
RiceOryza sativa, Asian rice, in the two great subspecies that cook and eat as different grains, O. sativa subsp. japonica and O. sativa subsp. indica; and, domesticated entirely separately in the inland delta of the Niger, Oryza glaberrima, African rice. The wild ancestors are O. rufipogon in Asia and O. barthii in West Africa.
RocketEruca vesicaria subsp. sativa, the salad or garden rocket, still frequently published as Eruca sativa; the wild rocket of the modern market is not a variety of it but a separate genus, Diplotaxis tenuifolia
RoseRosa × damascena (the damask rose of rose water and attar) · R. gallica var. officinalis (the apothecary's rose) · R. rugosa (the East Asian rose, the Chinese meigui) · R. canina, R. rubiginosa, and their kin (the hip-bearing wild roses) · R. × centifolia (the cabbage rose of Grasse and the Dades)
RosemarySalvia rosmarinus (syn. Rosmarinus officinalis)
RyeSecale cereale L., a diploid grass descended from the wild and weedy ryes of eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus. The cultivated crop is a single species. Winter rye, sown in autumn, and spring rye, sown after the thaw, are sowing habits of that one species rather than different plants, and the grain in every bread, pudding, and whiskey in this entry is the same S. cereale.
SaffronCrocus sativus
SageSalvia officinalis · Salvia fruticosa · Salvia hispanica
SesameSesamum indicum (syn. Sesamum orientale); wild progenitor Sesamum mulayanum
ShallotAllium cepa Aggregatum Group, the same species as the bulb onion, grown as a dividing cluster rather than a single bulb; and, separately, Allium oschaninii, the Central Asian mountain species behind the French échalote grise. The older name A. ascalonicum is no longer accepted for the cultivated shallot.
SorghumSorghum bicolor (L.) Moench
SoyGlycine max
SpinachSpinacia oleracea
Spring OnionAllium fistulosum, the Welsh or Japanese bunching onion, which forms no bulb and is the spring onion of East Asia; and, separately, Allium cepa harvested immature, which is the spring onion of Europe and the Americas. The wild ancestor of A. fistulosum is Allium altaicum of the Altai and southern Siberia; the crop has never been found growing wild.
Star AniseIllicium verum, the only edible species; Illicium anisatum, Japanese star anise, is a neurotoxic look-alike and is never food
StrawberryFragaria vesca (wild Eurasian) · F. virginiana (wild North American) · F. chiloensis (wild Chilean) · F. × ananassa (garden hybrid, 1750)
Sugar CaneSaccharum officinarum (the noble cane of New Guinea) · S. barberi (the thin north Indian canes) · S. sinense (the Chinese canes) · with S. spontaneum and S. robustum as the wild ancestors from which all of them, and every modern commercial hybrid, descend
Sweet PotatoIpomoea batatas
TamarindTamarindus indica L. (the sole species of its genus); grown in two broad culinary forms, the common sour tamarind and the low-acid sweet tamarind (Thai makham wan)
TaroColocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, a perennial herb grown for its starchy underground corm and for its leaves, and cultivated in two botanical varieties that behave quite differently in the ground and in the pot. Var. esculenta, the dasheen, throws a single large central corm and thrives standing in water. Var. antiquorum, the eddoe, makes a smaller central corm ringed with a cluster of cormels, and grows on dry land. Both are distinct from Xanthosoma sagittifolium, the New World tannia or cocoyam, which is a different genus altogether and is treated separately.
TarragonArtemisia dracunculus (tarragon), in its two cultivated forms, the sterile French tarragon (var. sativa) and the hardy, seed-grown Russian tarragon; together with the unrelated Tagetes lucida (Mexican tarragon, pericón, or yauhtli), a marigold used as a tarragon substitute in the New World
TeaCamellia sinensis
ThymeThymus vulgaris · Zataria multiflora
TomatoSolanum lycopersicum
TurmericCurcuma longa
TurnipBrassica rapa subsp. rapa (the European turnip); together with the East Asian turnips of Brassica rapa (the Japanese kabu, including the large Shogoin) and the leafy turnip-greens grown from the same species (cime di rapa or broccoli rabe, the Iberian grelos and nabiças); to be distinguished from the swede or rutabaga, Brassica napus, the larger yellow root widely called 'turnip' in Britain
VanillaVanilla planifolia
WalnutJuglans regia (Persian walnut); Juglans nigra (Black walnut)
WatermelonCitrullus lanatus
WheatTriticum spp.
YamDioscorea spp.: D. rotundata and D. cayenensis, the white and yellow Guinea yams of West Africa; D. alata, the greater or water yam of Asia and the Pacific, which the Philippines calls ube; D. polystachya, the Chinese yam; and D. trifida, the cush-cush yam of tropical South America